Survey for health research and methodlogy class Essay

Survey for health research and methodlogy class - Essay Example In the U.S., both the medical community and public have shown more interest in different alternative medical practices over the past couple of years. The establishment of an Office of Alternative Medicine by the National Institutes of Health in 1992 was testimony to the growing interest by the U.S. healthcare fraternity in alternative medicines. The Office later noted that therapies that were then considered unconventional had the potential of gaining more acceptance and becoming conventional in the future (Berman, Singh, Lao, Singh, Ferentz & Hartnoll, 1995). Recent studies conducted in the United States of America, Britain, and Australia among other countries reveal that alternative medicines are getting wider acceptance and attention among physicians and members of the public. A study conducted in 1990 by Eisenberg and other researchers, for example, revealed that about 30% of the American population used at least one form or another of complementary therapy (Berman, Singh, Lao, Singh, Ferentz & Hartnoll, 1995). In Britain, the number of people practicing alternative medicine grew 5.6 times more than physicians. Alternative medicines are used in the treatment of various ailments ranging from fevers to aches, pains and cancers. A study published in the European Journal of Cancer in 2000 revealed that out of the 1023 women suffering from breast cancer, roughly 22% had consulted with an alternative medicine practitioner in the previous twelve months (Rees, Feigel, Vickers, Zollman, McGurk & Smith, 2000). The attitudes of physicians and patients toward alternative treatments for cancer have been a subject of great interest for many researchers especially considering the effects of physician attitudes on patients. In her study on the relationship between patients’ use of alternative cancer treatments and physicians reactions toward them, Bourgeault (1996) established that patient –physician

A Mechanistic Mode Of Organization Business Essay

A Mechanistic Mode Of Organization Business Essay The structure of any organization has a clear impact on both employee behaviour and its performance Organizational Structure as Determinant of Organizational Performance: Uncovering Essential Facets of Organic and Mechanistic Structure. On the other hand, an organizational structure provides an overview about the hierarchy of levels, roles and responsibilities, authorities, communication channels, etc. Mechanistic organizational structure has a certain amount of bureaucratic features such as being a rigid structure, centralized in decision making, having well defined job roles and well-defined communication channels. These features ensure high efficiency in strict processes and procedures. Furthermore, it reduces flexibility and learning opportunities. The success of the mechanistic structure depends largely upon the external environment and also effectiveness in increasing organizational performance. It is of utmost importance to understand the definition of the organizational structure since it affects both employee behaviour and organizational performance (Organizational Structure as Determinant of Organizational Performance: Uncovering Essential Facets of Organic and Mechanistic Structure). Organizational structure is understood as a method consisting of responsibilities and power allocated amongst members and how work procedures are carried out among them. (Nahm et al., 2003). It also includes the layers of hierarchy, centralization of authority, and horizontal integration. However, an organizational structure is a multi-dimensional construct which illustrates the division of work (roles or responsibilities including specification), departmentalization, centralization, complexity, communication or coordination mechanisms including standardization, formalization and flexibility (How does organizational structure influence performance through learning and innovation in Austria and China). Two main types of organizational structures can be identified as mechanistic and organic. The next paragraph would provide an overview of the mechanistic organizational structure whilst discussing its nature and characteristics. Mechanistic structure is  hierarchical  and bureaucratic by nature. Its structure, processes and roles are considered as a machine where each part of the organization does what it is intended to do. Three main features could be identified. Namely highly centralized  authority, formalized procedures and  practices specialized functions (Businessdictionary.com). Thus, a mechanistic structure has a clear, well-defined, centralized, vertical hierarchy of command, authority, and control. It achieves efficiency and predictability through specialization, standardization, and formalization. Rigidly defined jobs, technologies, and processes are outcomes of such mechanical organizational structure. Mechanistic structure aims to achieve efficiency thorough tight control (Enotes/Studymaster). Characteristics for mechanistic organizational structure are listed below: Stable environment This organizational structure works best when the environment is relatively stable. Low differentiation of tasks Tasks will not be differentiated much, because each subtask is relatively stable and easy to control. Low integration of e.g. departments and functional areas Due to the stability of tasks, there will be low integration between departments and functional areas, because tasks stay relatively stable, and because the functional areas are not heavily dependent on each other. Centralized decision-making When the environment is stable, there is no need for complex decision-making that involves people at lower levels. Therefore, decision-making is centralized at the top of the organization. Standardization and formalization When tasks are stable, tasks should be standardized and formalized, so that operations can run smoothly without breakdowns. Source : http://www.businessmate.org/Article.php?ArtikelId=44 Mechanistic organizations prefer formalized structure due to two main reasons. It reduces the variability within the organization and enhances predictability in the organization rather than being ambiguous (Mintzberg, 1979). A highly formalized mechanistic structure demands nearly all processes and procedures to be administratively authorized. On the other hand, it considers processes and procedures outside to those authorized protocols as variances which should be brought under control meaning that decision making in all dealings should be done by applying such provided procedures, policies, rules or instructions (Enotes/Studymaster). A mechanistic structure enables employee behaviour more predictable while enhancing standardization within the organization. For example, an employee is well aware of handling customer sales returns or accepting credit card payments. Formalization enables organizations to improve performance (Hahn, 2007). In contrast, it also curbs any opportunities for innovation and fresh ideas, since variations are not allowed or encouraged. Consequently, a mechanistic structure does not support or adapt quickly to changes in the external environment. Hence a mechanistic type of organizational structure is best suited for large organizations which operate in more stable environments where it helps to maximize the organizational efficiency while minimizing the cost through formalization and centralized decision making (Carpenter et al, 1969). Classical management theories perceive an organization as a machine (Fayol, 1949; Taylor, 1911). Classical theories emphasis the need for bureaucracy within o rganizations resulting the lack of space towards creativity and innovativeness. Thus, Classical management theories encourage a mechanistic type of an organizational structure (Organizational Structure as Determinant of Organizational Performance: Uncovering Essential Facets of Organic and Mechanistic Structure). However, organizations that operate in a rapidly changing environment requires to frequently change their processes and procedures with the changes that take place in the external environment. Moreover, it requires taking action according to the situation in order to enhance adaptability to environment. Thus, formulation and authority which exist in mechanistic structures does not encourage deviating from defined processes and procedures. Therefore, mechanistic kind of organizational structure is not effective for organizations that operate in a dynamic environment. It can be seen, that mechanistic organizations increase efficiency when tasks and technologies are relatively stable.  Meaning that stable environments and technology allow work to be clearly defined and differentiated. A scientific method should be used to separate work process to identify precise tasks, assign tasks in order to employees and monitor employee performance (Fayol, 1949; Taylor, 1911). Work activity of a mechanistic organization is separated into specific tasks. A specialized job position is created by assigning one or more specific tasks which requires rigidly defined set of skills, methodology and procedure to perform jobs. Furthermore, specific responsibilities or authority is assigned to each job function. Line managers and lower-level staff are to strictly perform assigned tasks according to strict procedures whereas few higher level managers monitor their performance. (Organizational Structure as Determinant of Organizational Performance: Uncovering Essential F acets of Organic and Mechanistic Structure). Managers perform as planners and monitors in a mechanistic type of organization. This leads to high levels of efficiency by clear instructions to perform specific tasks. On the other hand, it provides fewer opportunities for innovation. Thus, innovation is restricted to achieve efficiency in the processes. However, this can be more suitable to improve efficiency in a stable environment rather than depending on innovative ideas. For example, Few customers, for instance, would want a McDonalds employee to use creativity in preparing their hamburger. Instead, the repetitiveness and stability of the procedure needed to cook a hamburger is more efficient when the employee follows established procedures and customers can trust that each hamburger they purchase will taste the same (Enotes/Studymaster). In contrast, a rapidly changing external environment requires innovative ideas to face external environment demand. Furthermore, it requires more flexibility in procedures and processes to meet demands from the external environment. Employees would be given more flexibility to deal with their customers meaning that lower level employees would have a certain amount of liberty to make certain decisions in order to face the situation and solve problems. Thus, the mechanistic structure is less effective for organizations that operate in challenging environments. Centralized decision making in mechanistic type organizations enable few higher management personnel to actively be involved in decision making. Clear communication channels allow formal communication or information flows from top to bottom or vice versa. Classical theorists provides a view point that centralized decision making increases organizational efficiency and definitely results in better organizational performance (Gulick and Urwick, 1937; Weber, 1947). Classical theorists focus was more on hierarchical authority and pays less or no attention to the degree of employee participation in decision making. Employee involvement in decision making is definitely an important aspect of any organizational structure and which directly influence organizational performance (Carter and Cullen, 1984; Khakani et al, 2012). Furthermore, centralized decision-making leads to the effective and efficient functioning of any bureaucratic structures (Goodsell, 1985). Scientific management of organi zations is possible only if decision-making is restricted to few employees (upper level management) within organizations as discussed in the concept of Taylor (1911) (Mansoor, Aslam (2012). However, centralized decision making is more suited for stable and large organizations. Thus, in highly dynamic external environments, organizations require to act fast in order to survive within the in environment in which it operates. Therefore, certain amount of decision making power is required to decentralize and empower lower level employees. This helps them to react to quick changes that occur in the external environment. It is evident that the mechanistic type of structure would not sufficiently support organizations up to expectations when they are engaged within challenging external environments. Therefore, the extent to which formalization exists within an organization depends on the technology, size and the organizations traditions (Robbins 1990, Burton and Obel, 1998 (Mansoor, Aslam (2012). In a mechanistic structure, the clear distance between employees and management provide fewer opportunities to bring in new ideas by subordinates. Moreover, those who bring change can be threaded according to the X theory of Douglas McGregor. Therefore, resistance to change is high and innovation is not so much encouraged in organizations having a mechanistic type of organization hierarchy. (Armstrong, 2008). However, organizations face immense competition in todays challenging and dynamic external environment. Therefore, organizations with mechanistic structure face various difficulties when introducing quick changes due to the highly formalized nature of the hierarchy itself. However, learning is a critical factor that affects organizational development. The below diagram displays steps that are adhered to in single loop learning. Source : http://www.cognitivedesignsolutions.com/KM/Learning.htm Mechanistic type of organizations can use this model to improve efficiency in their processes. The single loop model focuses on analyzing actions and feedback to identify the gap between where we are and where we need to be. Therefore, changes are implemented as actions but not as governing variables (Create advantage). Kolbs (1984) classic interpretation of learning concisely describes the single-loop learning process and is considered a simplified version of the scientific method (Kolb 1984, Armstrong 2008).  Ã‚   As discussed above, learning and implementing change requires flexibility within systems and procedures. The rigid structure in mechanistic organizations does not facilitate comfortable implementation of changes. A well-defined structure demands authorization of all changes and formal communication within organizations. In mechanistic type of structures communicating and formalizing all necessary changes takes a considerable effort and time where dynamic external environment demands quick changes. Therefore, companies face various challenges in adjusting to the external environment. Furthermore, implementation of change requires modifying tasks or roles where employees resist since their knowledge is more specific to a task or set of tasks. On the other hand, change may require training needs and considerable time to adapt which intern has an impact on efficiency of processes. Moreover, the amount of bureaucracy seen in mechanistic structures makes it difficult to introduce change. I n conjunction, it reduces participation opportunities for employees in lower levels when deciding on changes. Clear distance between hierarchical levels of the organization and communication lines reduces awareness about such changes. Therefore, employees fear change and resist to innovation. It is of utmost importance to consider the rate of changes in technology and the external environment while deciding on the amount of formalization and specialization used within the mechanistic structure. Considering all these factors it can be decided that a mechanistic structure provides less space for rapid changes. Therefore, it is more suitable for large organizations operating in comparatively stable environments. Moreover, the type of organizational structure cannot be precisely identified as good or bad since it depends on the firms internal and external environments. An organization structure that suits a specific industry will necessarily be suited for another industry owing to many external factors such as competition and technological impacts. A mechanistic structure by nature is highly formalized and specialized with well defined procedures, processes and roles. Centralized decision making is one of the main features in a mechanistic structure. Higher level managers are involved in decision making whereas their subordinates are expected to carry out specific task or tasks within the department. Therefore, the mechanistic structure provides fewer opportunities for learning. However, the flexibility in the structure is a key to promote learning. Learning and innovation is highly required when dealing with changing and dynamic environments. Mechanistic structure does not provide enough flexibility to change or modify decision making according to situations. Therefore, a mechanistic type of structure is highly efficient for an organization which operates in a more stable environment. These features of mechanistic structures reduce opportunities for learning. Altering the level of mechanistic characteristics will help a firm t o increase learning opportunities to some extent.

The Grade Inflation Epidemic Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Topics

The Grade Inflation Epidemic      Ã‚  Ã‚   It's June, and another graduating class is hoping, among other things, to achieve high grades. Of course, "high" is a subjective target. Originally a "C" meant average; today however, the expectations and pressures to give and receive "A's" and "B's" takes its toll on teachers and students alike. This nullifies the value of the traditional grading scale and creates a host of entirely new problems. The widespread occurrence of grade inflation seriously affects the credibility of secondary and post-secondary education in America.    The definition of an acceptable grade has changed significantly over the years. Grade inflation seemed to begin in earnest in the late 1960s after the bombing of Cambodia. Male college students who failed their classes would lose their deferments for the draft. Some professors gave higher grades so their students wouldn't have to go to war. The cause of the problem wasn't the compassionate professors, but the national policy of linking the deferments to academic success (Hambert).    Unfortunately, along with the astounding cost of college education, comes a pressure for students to compete for scholarship dollars. Faced with losing the means of paying for their schooling, students will go to just about any length to assure good grades. Often clear ethics and morals take a back seat when it comes to doing whatever it takes to pass a course with a good grade. Any teacher with a heart would reconsider a poor grade that would cost a student the funding to complete their education. While some students might earn terrible grades in History, they may make terrific doctors someday. It seems absurd for a grade to have the power to sabot... ...set up to serve - the student.    Works Cited    Dwyer, Victor. "Are We Cheating Our Kids?" Mc'Clean's Magazine 14 Mar. 1994: 44-54 Franey, Lynn. "Inflation Pumping Up Students GPA's." Spokesman Review 20 May 2001: A4+. Hambert, Craid. "Desperately Seeking Summa." Harvard Magazine May 1993: 36-40 Mattern, Elizabeth. "Officials Debate Grade Inflation." Daily Camera 25 May 2001 http://www.thedailycamera.com/buffzone/news/131grad.html Moore, Patrick. "Grade Inflation at Public Universities: Who Profits, Who Pays?" UALR I. May 2001. http://www.ualr.edu/~epmoore/inflation.html II. Pitsch, Mark. "States Seek Goals 2000 Aid for Existing Efforts." Education Week Vol. XIV (1994): 17+. Srinivasan, Kalpana. "Forum to Address Grade Inflation." Yale 25May 2001 http://www.yale.edu/ydn/paper/3.27/3.27.95storyno.FE.html

Explain what is meant by the term national curriculum Essay

The basic school curriculum includes the national curriculum, religious education and sex education. The national curriculum is a set of subjects and standards used by primary and secondary schools so children learn the same things it is defined by four key stages to be spread over the 12 years of compulsory years of schooling. It covers what subjects are taught and the standards children should reach in each subject. Other types of schools such as academies and private schools don’t have to follow the national curriculum. Academies must teach a broad and balanced curriculum including English, maths and science. They must also teach religious education. The national curriculum is organised into four key stages at the end of each key stage, the pupil’s teacher will formally assess their performance to measure the pupil’s progress. This will set targets for learning and will also show how performance will be assessed and then reported. For each subject there’s a programme of study, it describes what children should learn. Discuss 5 factors that influence learning The influence of other people can have an affect the pupils learning the ways in which this can happen is by the way there family encourage learning if their family encourages and is enthusiastic about learning the student is more likely to be enthusiastic and therefore become a more effective learner if the students family do not promote the benefits of learning this can make the child less enthusiastic giving them an undervalued opinion of learning and education and affecting their capabilities.

Alternative Dispute Resolution

Man has always sort ways of dealing with conflicts and disputes among members of the society in a just and fair manner. Alternative dispute resolution is one among the conflict resolution methods which have gained much acceptance from the public in the recent years.The process involves any form of dispute resolution technique that does not follow the legal judicial process provisions of the law (Maclaury, 2005). It is however worth noting that due to the increasing acceptance of alternative dispute resolution by legal professions, some legal courts allow for its use before a case is tried.Such are viable measures in ensuring equitable justice in resolving disputes between parties. They also provide an efficient and highly cost effective way of resolving disputes. To be realized here is the fact that, of all the existing types of alternative dispute resolution methods, none is applicable to victims of capital crimes (Mareschal, 2002). The author of this paper gives a discussion on alt ernative dispute resolution, its history and the different forms or methods it takes.The author also takes a look on the alternative dispute options as accepted in the modern society and how they have influenced the process of executing equitable justice between disputing parties. History of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) The history of alternative dispute resolution is as old as the history of man (Mackie, 2001). Disagreements have always existed among people in the society. However, the modern history of ADR in the American society is evidently marked with the 1960s political and civil conflicts (Banks, 2008).Such conflicts led to the implementation of human rights laws thus giving the people legal provisions for compensation on ill treatment. This was found to increase the number of legal suits in our courts of justice, a factor which led to the popular appreciation of meditation and arbitration as viable ways of resolving dispute. This did not only ensure justice but much reduced the case load in the court system. Alternative dispute resolution techniques There are mainly four type of ADR. First is negotiation.This technique of conflict resolution involves only the type disputing parties voluntarily seeking a solution to their dispute (New York State Unified Court System, 2009). Mediation is another form of dispute resolution technique which mainly involves a third party who chairs the resolution process. It is however to be noted here that the mediator might suggest a solution to the dispute but does not have the legal/moral authority to impose it to the parties. This method is commonly used in resolving civil and ethnic conflicts within a nation or conflicts between nations.The third method of alternative dispute resolution is the collaborative law. This technique is characterized by the fact that it involves attorneys representing the disputing parties (Mareschal, 2002). The legal professionals are tied by the contractual terms signed with their c lients and thus are always acting in the interests of their respective party. Arbitration is another commonly used technique of ADR. This form of resolution process is differentiated from negotiation in that it involves a third party.Another difference of arbitration from other forms of ADR is that the third party imposes a resolution to the problem. It is due to this reason that such a technique is usually used if the disputing parties had allowed for such in their contract (Maclaury, 2005). Due to the unfairness that could arise from such imposed resolutions, it is a common provision for parties to appeal in the courts of justice. It should however be noted that there are other forms of ADR such as case evaluation, which involves evaluation of the positions of the parties by a third party.The evaluator then gives an assessment of the possible decision that could be made in the law courts. Such evaluations by a legal expert are made to influence the parties in resolving to settle t he case outside the law courts. It is still to be noted that family conferences are another ADR technique as it strengthens the mutual relationships between family members thus reducing incidences of ill-treatment among them (Banks, 2008). Courts or individual parties can select a neutral party who contacts a fact searching investigation on the dispute.This technique is mainly applied in resolving intellectual property disputes. Lastly, ADR can take a form in which an organization selects a third party who oversees the resolution of its disputes with complaints. Changes and options provided in ADR Traditional ADR techniques involved the constant physical involvement of the parties in resolution process. It has however been evident that most modern ADR techniques like meditation and arbitration allow for the founding of a resolution by the third party in the absence of the disputing parties (Banks, 2008). Another change in ADR is seen in arbitration.Traditional arbitrations involved a member of the governing authority as the third party who imposes the resolution to the dispute (Center for Democracy and Governance, 1998). However, this has changed in that modern arbitration process has a neutral commercial vendor as the third party. This party should not have strong social or political influence in the process. This avoids imposition of unfair resolutions to the disputing parties. Another change of ADR techniques in the modern society is the legal provisions for appeal by the parties in the event of failure to resolve the dispute outside courtrooms.It is however to be noted that, following the legal provisions for ADR, rules and regulations have been developed thus making the process more reliable. It is due to this reason that such dispute resolution techniques are gaining much acceptance in the public domain. Courts have evidently employed such techniques as neutral fact finding in seeking to identify the underlying facts behind the dispute. Such testimonies have a great impact in ensuring fair and just judgments in our courts. ADR has a number of options. The first is the fact that the two parties involve in the resolution process on voluntary basis (Maclaury, 2005).Even arbitration requires for a legal binding provision on the contract signing to be executed. Another option is that the parties are free to agree or disagree on the disputed matter and can seek judicial justices as an appeal. It is however to be noted that ADR resolution once agreed upon by the two parties are legally binding and violation by any party is subject to the law. Conclusion ADR has been one way of settling disputes between parties in a contract agreement. This is also applied in disputes involving neglect of a legal responsibility by one party over another.It is however to be realized that such dispute resolution techniques have gained much acceptance in the community due to the increasing respect for human rights space in the modern society. This has also be en attributed to the fact that ADR has been legally recognized by our judicial systems. References Banks, S. (2008). ADR and Litigation Involving Social Problems. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 35, 71-97. Center for Democracy and Governance. (1998). Alternative Dispute Resolution Practitioners’ Guide. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://www. usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/publications/pdfs/pnacb895. pdf Mackie, K. (2001). A Handbook of Dispute Resolution; ADR in Action. New York: Routledge. Maclaury, J. (2005). Alternative Dispute Resolution. Monthly Labor Review, 128, 46-137. Mareschal, P. (2002). Introduction: New Frontiers in Alternative Dispute Resolution. International Journal of Public Administration, 25, 67-101. New York State Unified Court System (2009). Alternative Dispute Resolution. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://www. courts. state. ny. us/ip/adr/What_Is_ADR. shtml Alternative Dispute Resolution Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) is a mean used or applied by the parties who wish to settle their disputes or differences outside courtroom. When a learning team decides to resolve disputes, disagreements or differences among learning team members, it can use optional ADR clause.The clause is normally used when the matter is not resolved through negotiation and is recommended to the team by the Centre for Dispute Resolution (CEDR). Some of the disputes subjected to ADR are: Personal confrontation, dispute over goals, disagreement over methods, means and routines, dispute expected as health interaction etc.Disputes arise when team members think only of themselves, compete with one another, criticize teammates and blame someone else for wrongdoing. Dispute is endemic in organizational life and research shows that â€Å"conflict can often be a means by which teams learn to work together effectively.† (Charles, 2001)The provisions necessary for ADR to occur  Ã‚  Ã‚   includ es: If a team member expresses dissatisfaction with the recommendation of the team, if a member expresses dissatisfaction with a decision made by the team, if a member is dissatisfied with teams' determination to solve a dispute, then they may submit the entire dispute to the ADR clause. Though ADR helps the parties to settle the disputes, for the process to work effectively then;Team members must agree to work with dispute that affect interpersonal relationships of the team and accept the dispute as it exists. Members should progressively learn how to discuss issues vigorously, handle each member and engage in arguments without feeling as if they are personally attacked.They should emphasize on dialogue between the members, avoid gossip and make sure not to expose team discussions outside.   The public policy reasons for enforcing the clause should be good.The ADR clause must go much further than coming up with a simple agreement to negotiate.The intention of the members should b e mutual and the litigation should be treated as the last alternative.   ADR need to be applied as the last resort when the team fails to reach an agreement to settle their differences.ReferencesCharles A. Cooper, (2001) Alternative Dispute Resolution Practice Guide. New York: Lawyers Cooperative Publishing Company.Nancy F. Atlas, (2000) Alternative Dispute Resolution. New York: American Bar Association.